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زمان تقریبی مطالعه: 1 دقیقه
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شرطی خلاف واقع

یک شرطی خلاف واقع (مخفف CF) یک شرطی شامل یک قید «اگر» است که بر خلاف واقعیت است. اصطلاح خلاف واقع در سال ۱۹۴۷ توسط نلسون گودمن ابداع شد، که مفهوم «شرطیِ بر خلاف واقعیت» رودریک چیشولم (۱۹۴۶) را گسترش می‌داد. مطالعه خلاف واقع‌ها به طور فزاینده‌ای مورد علاقه دانشوران در طیف گسترده‌ای از حوزه‌ها مانند فلسفه، روانشناسی، روانشناسی شناختی، تاریخ، علوم سیاسی، اقتصاد، روانشناسی اجتماعی، قانون، نظریه سازمان، بازاریابی و اپیدمیولوژی واقع شده است. در سال ۱۷۴۸، هنگام تعریف علیت، دیوید هیوم به یک مورد خلاف واقع اشاره کرد:

«... می‌توانیم علت را به عنوان یک شیء که با شیء دیگری دنبال می‌شود تعریف کنیم، که مشابه اولی، توسط اشیائی مانند دومی دنبال می‌شوند. یا به بیان دیگر، جایی که شیء نخست نبوده باشد، شیء دوم هرگز وجود نداشته است…»

دیوید هیوم، جستاری دربارهٔ فهم بشر

جستارهای وابسته

  • جملات شرطی در زبان انگلیسی
  • شرطی اخباری
  • نتیجه منطقی
  • شرطی مادی
  • وجه تمنایی
  • وجه التزامی
  • آزمایش فکری
  • معناشناسی جهان ممکن

پانویس

  1. ↑ Goodman, N. , "The Problem of Counterfactual Conditionals", The Journal of Philosophy, Vol.44, No.5, (27 February 1947), pp.113-128.
  2. ↑ Chisholm, R.M. , "The Contrary-to-Fact Conditional", Mind, Vol.55, No.220, (October 1946), pp.289-307.
  3. ↑ Goodman, N. , "The Problem of Counterfactual Conditionals", The Journal of Philosophy, Vol.44, No.5, (27 February 1947), pp.113-128; Brown, R, & Watling, J. , "Counterfactual Conditionals", Mind, Vol.61, No.242, (April 1952), pp.222-233; Parry, W.T. , "Reëxamination of the Problem of Counterfactual Conditionals", The Journal of Philosophy, Vol.54, No.4, (14 February 1957), pp.85-94; Cooley, J.C. , "Professor Goodman’s Fact, Fiction, & Forecast", The Journal of Philosophy, Vol.54, No.10, (9 May 1957), pp.293-311; Goodman, N. , "Parry on Counterfactuals", The Journal of Philosophy, Vol.54, No.14, (4 July 1957), pp.442-445; Goodman, N. , "Reply to an Adverse Ally", The Journal of Philosophy, Vol.54, No.17, (15 August 1957), pp.531-535; Lewis, D., Counterfactuals, Basil Blackwell, (Oxford), 1973, etc.
  4. ↑ Fillenbaum, S. , "Information Amplified: Memory for Counterfactual Conditionals", Journal of Experimental Psychology, Vol.102, No.1, (January 1974), pp.44-49; Crawford, M.T. & McCrea, S.M. , "When Mutations meet Motivations: Attitude Biases in Counterfactual Thought", Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Vol.40, No.1, (January 2004), pp.65-74, etc.
  5. ↑ Kahneman, D. & Tversky, A. , "The Simulation Heuristic", pp.201-208 in Kahneman, D. , Slovic, P. & Tversky, A. (eds), Judgement Under Uncertainty: Heuristics and Biases, Cambridge University Press, (Cambridge), 1982; Sherman, S.J. & McConnell, A.R. , "Dysfunctional Implications of Counterfactual Thinking: When Alternatives to reality Fail Us", pp.199-231 in Roese, N.J. & Olson, J.M. (eds.
  6. ↑ Greenberg, M. (ed.
  7. ↑ Fearon, J.D. , "Counterfactuals and Hypothesis Testing in Political Science", World Politics, Vol.43, No.2, (January 1991), pp.169-195; Tetlock, P.E. & Belkin, A. (eds.
  8. ↑ Cowan, R. & Foray, R. , "Evolutionary Economics and the Counterfactual Threat: On the Nature and Role of Counterfactual History as an Empirical Tool in Economics", Journal of Evolutionary Economics, Vol.12, No.5, (December 2002), pp.539-562, etc.
  9. ↑ Roese, N.J. & Olson, J.M. (eds.
  10. ↑ Strassfeld, R.N. , "If..
  11. ↑ Creyer, E.H. & Gürhan, Z. , "Who's to Blame?
  12. ↑ Hetts, J.J. , Boninger, D.S. , Armor, D.A. , Gleicher, F. & Nathanson, A. , "The Influence of Anticipated Counterfactual Regret on Behavior", Psychology & Marketing, Vol.17, No.4, (April 2000), pp.345-368; Landman, J. & Petty, R. , "“It Could Have Been You”: How States Exploit Counterfactual Thought to Market Lotteries", Psychology & Marketing, Vol.17, No.4, (April 2000), pp.299-321; McGill, A.L. , "Counterfactual Reasoning in Causal Judgements: Implications for Marketing", Psychology & Marketing, Vol.17, No.4, (April 2000), pp.323-343; Roese, N.J. , "Counterfactual Thinking and Marketing: Introduction to the Special Issue", Psychology & Marketing', Vol.17, No.4, (April 2000), pp.277-280; Walchli, S.B. & Landman, J. , "Effects of Counterfactual Thought on Postpurchase Consumer Affect", Psychology & Marketing, Vol.20, No.1, (January 2003), pp.23-46, etc.
  13. ↑ Randerson, J. , "Fast action would have saved millions", New Scientist, Vol.176, No.2372, (7 December 2002), p.19; Haydon, D.T. , Chase-Topping, M. , Shaw, D.J. , Matthews, L. , Friar, J.K. , Wilesmith, J. & Woolhouse, M.E.J. , "The Construction and Analysis of Epidemic Trees With Reference to the 2001 UK Foot-and-Mouth Outbreak", Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B: Biological Sciences, Vol.270, No.1511, (22 January 2003), pp.121-127, etc.
  14. ↑ Hume, D. (Beauchamp, T.L. , ed.), An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Oxford University Press, (Oxford), 1999, (7), p.146: emphasis in the original).

منابع

  • Bennett, Jonathan. (2003). A Philosophical Guide to Conditionals. Oxford University Press.
  • Bonevac, D. (2003). Deduction, Introductory Symbolic Logic. 2nd ed. Blackwell Publishers.
  • Byrne, R.M.J. (2005). The rational imagination: how people create alternatives to reality. Cambridge, M.A. : MIT Press.
  • Byrne, R.M.J. & Tasso, A. (1999). Deductive reasoning with factual, possible, and counterfactual conditionals. Memory & Cognition. 27, 726-740.
  • De Vega, M. , Urrutia, M. , Riffo, B. (2007). Canceling updating in the comprehension of counterfactuals embedded in narrative. Memory & Cognition, 35, 1410-1421.
  • Edgington, Dorothy. (2001). "Conditionals". In Goble, Lou, ed. , The Blackwell Guide to Philosophical Logic. Blackwell.
  • Edgington, Dorothy. (2006). "Conditionals". The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Edward Zalta (ed.).
  • Ferguson, H.J. and Sanford, A.J. (2008) Anomalies in real and counterfactual worlds: an eye-movement investigation. J. Mem. Lang. 58, 609-626.
  • Fillenbaum, S. (1974). Information amplified: memory for counterfactual conditionals. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 102, 44-49.
  • Johnson-Laird, P.N. and Byrne, R.M.J. (1991). Deduction. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
  • Morgan, Stephen L. and Christopher Winship. (2007). " Counterfactuals and Causal Inference: Methods and Principles of Social Research". Cambridge Eprint.
  • Ginsberg, M. L. (1986). "Counterfactuals". Artificial Intelligence, 30: 35-79.
  • Kożuchowski, Adam. "More than true: the rhetorical function of counterfactuals in historiography" Rethinking History (2015) 10#3 pp 337–356.
  • Lewis, David. (1973). Counterfactuals. Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 0-631-22425-4
  • Judea Pearl (2000). Causality: Models, Reasoning, and Inference. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77362-8.
  • Santamaria, C. , Espino, O. and Byrne, R.M.J. (2005). Counterfactual and semifactual conditionals prime alternative possibilities.Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory and Cognition. 31, 1149–1154
  • Thompson, V. and Byrne, R.M.J. (2002). Reasoning about things that didn't happen. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 28, 1154-1170.
آخرین نظرات
  • دیوید هیوم
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